Air distribution system performance can have a big effect on overall HVAC system efficiency. Therefore, air distribution systems face several mandatory measures and prescriptive requirements, discussed below.
The 2016 Energy Standards specify mandatory requirements for air distribution ducts to be sealed and tested in all climate zones. There are also several compliance credits available related to duct system design.
Duct efficiency is affected by the following parameters:
1. Duct location (attic, crawlspace, basement, inside conditioned space, or other)
2. Specific conditions in the unconditioned space, for example, presence of a radiant barrier
3. Duct insulation characteristics
4. Duct surface area, and
5. Air leakage of the duct system
In performance calculations, duct efficiency can be calculated in one of two ways:
1. Default input assumptions; or
2. Diagnostic measurement values.
The computer program will use default assumptions for the proposed design when the user does not intend to make improvements in duct efficiency.
Ducts that are entirely in conditioned space, must comply with an installed R-value of R-4.2. The minimum allowed duct insulation value is R-6. Higher values may be required by the prescriptive requirements, as described below.
To determine whether ducts are entirely in conditioned space as defined in Section 100.1, a Rater must field verify by visual inspection and by using the protocols of RA3.1.4.3.8.
RA3.1.4.3.8 describes the duct leakage to outside test to help ensure that the ducts are within the pressure boundary of the space being served by the duct system. Passing the test alone is not enough to establish that the ducts are entirely within conditioned space. The test procedure is in 'addition to a basic visual inspection of the ducts to ensure that no portion of the duct system is obviously outside the apparent pressure/thermal boundary. Once this has been established, the leakage to outside test verifies that the pressure boundary is intact and preventing leakage from escaping to the outside.
Applying this procedure to multifamily dwelling units poses a unique situation. In this case, leakage to “outside” means conditioned air leaking from the ducts to anywhere outside the pressure boundary of the space being served by the duct system, including adjacent dwelling units. Duct leakage to adjacent dwelling units is not desirable and should be eliminated. When performing the leakage to outside test, it is necessary only to pressurize the dwelling unit served by the duct system being tested.
§150.0(m)1 Exception to §150.0(m)1
Ducts and fans integral to a wood heater or fireplace are exempt from §150.0(m)1.
For determining installed R-value of duct insulation based on thickness, when not an integral part of a manufacturer-labeled, insulated duct product such as vinyl flex duct, the following shall be used:
1. For duct wrap, the installed thickness of insulation must be assumed to be 75 percent of the nominal thickness due to compression.
For duct board, duct liner and factory-made rigid ducts not normally subjected to compression, the nominal insulation thickness shall be used.
The Energy Standards set a number of mandatory measures related to duct connections and closures. These measures address both the materials and methods used for duct sealing. The following is a summary. Refer to the sections of the Energy Standards 'listed above for additional details.
Factory-fabricated duct systems must comply with the following requirements:
1. All factory-fabricated duct systems must comply with UL 181 for ducts and closure systems, including collars, connections, and splices, and be labeled as complying with UL 181. UL181 testing may be performed by UL laboratories or a laboratory approved by the Executive Director.
2. All pressure-sensitive tapes, heat-activated tapes, and mastics used in the manufacture of rigid fiberglass ducts must comply with UL 181 and UL 181A.
3. All pressure-sensitive tapes and mastics used with flexible ducts must comply with UL 181 and UL 181B.
4. Joints and seams of duct systems and related components cannot be sealed with cloth back rubber adhesive duct tapes unless such tape is used in combination with mastic and draw bands: or
5. It has on its backing the phrase "CEC approved," a drawing of a fitting to plenum joint in a red circle with a slash through it (the international symbol of prohibition), and a statement that it cannot be used to seal fittings to plenums and junction box joints.
Field-fabricated duct systems must comply with the following requirements:
1. Factory-made rigid fiberglass and flexible ducts for field-fabricated duct systems must comply with UL 181. All pressure-sensitive tapes, mastics, aerosol sealants, or other closure systems used for installing field-fabricated duct systems shall meet the applicable requirements of UL 181, UL 181A, and UL 181B.
2. Mastic sealants and mesh:
a. Sealants must comply with the applicable requirements of UL 181, UL 181A, and/or UL 181B, and be nontoxic and water resistant.
b. Sealants for interior applications must be tested in accordance with ASTM C731 and D2202.
c. Sealants for exterior applications must be tested in accordance with ASTM C731, C732, and D 2202.
d. Sealants and meshes must be rated for exterior use.
3. Pressure-sensitive tapes must comply with the applicable requirements of UL 181, UL 181A, and UL 181B.
4. Joints and seams of duct systems and their components must not be sealed with cloth back rubber adhesive duct tapes unless such tape is used in combination with mastic and draw bands: or
5. It has on its backing the phrase "CEC approved," a drawing of a fitting to plenum joint in a red circle with a slash through it (the international symbol of prohibition), and a statement that it cannot be used to seal fittings to plenums or junction box joints.
1. Draw bands must be either stainless-steel worm-drive hose clamps or UV-resistant nylon duct ties.
2. Draw bands must have a minimum tensile strength rating of 150 pounds.
3. Draw bands must be tightened as recommended by the manufacturer with an adjustable tensioning tool.
1. Aerosol sealants shall meet the requirements of UL 723 and be applied according to manufacturer specifications.
2. Tapes or mastics used in combination with aerosol sealing shall meet the requirements of this section.
If mastic or tape is used to seal openings greater than 1/4 inch, the combination of mastic and either mesh or tape must be used.
Building spaces such as cavities between walls, support
platforms for air handlers, and plenums defined or constructed with materials
other than sealed sheet metal, duct board, or flexible duct must not be used for
conveying conditioned air including return air and supply air. Using drywall
materials as the interior surface of a return plenum is not allowed. Building
cavities and support platforms may contain ducts. Ducts installed in cavities
and support platforms must not be compressed to cause reductions in the cross
sectional area of the ducts. Although a HERS
Rater may examine this as a
part of his or her responsibilities when involved in a project, the enforcement
of these minimum standards for ducts is the responsibility of the building
official.
Duct systems may not use cloth-backed, rubber-adhesive duct tape (typical, “old fashioned”, nonrated duct tape) unless it is installed in combination with mastic and draw bands. Note: mastic and drawbands alone are adequate for sealing most connections. Cloth backed rubber adhesive duct tape would then be used only to hold the outer vapor barrier in place or for some other superfluous purpose. It alone is not adequate to serve as an air-sealing method or as a mechanical connection.
The enforcement of these minimum standards is normally the responsibility of the building official; however, HERS Raters will also verify compliance with this requirement in conjunction with duct leakage verification.
All factory-fabricated duct systems must meet UL 181 for ducts and closure systems and be labeled as complying with UL 181. Collars, connections and splices are considered to be factory-fabricated duct systems and must meet the same requirement.
Insulated flexible duct products installed to meet this requirement must include labels, in maximum intervals of 3 ft, showing the R-value for the duct insulation (excluding air films, vapor barriers, or other duct components), based on the tests and thickness specified in §150.0(m)4 and §150.0(m)5C.
Fan systems that exhaust air from the building to the outside must be provided with back draft or automatic dampers.
Gravity ventilating systems must have an automatic or readily accessible, manually operated damper in all openings to the outside, except combustion inlet and outlet air openings and elevator shaft vents. This includes clothes dryer exhaust vents when installed in conditioned space.
Insulation must be protected from damage, including damage due to sunlight, moisture, equipment maintenance, and wind but not limited to the following:
•Insulation exposed to weather must be suitable for outdoor service −; for example, protected by aluminum, sheet metal, painted canvas, or plastic cover.
•Cellular foam insulation shall be protected as above or painted with a coating that is water retardant and shields from solar radiation that can degrade the material.
Ducts located in a concrete slab must have R-6 insulation but other issues will come into play. If ducts are in the soil beneath the slab or embedded in the slab, the insulation material should be designed and rated for such installation. Insulation installed in below-grade applications should resist moisture penetration (Closed cell foam is one moisture-resistant product). Common premanufactured duct systems are not suitable for below-grade installations. If concrete is to be poured directly over the ducts, then the duct construction and insulation system should be sturdy enough to resist the pressure and not collapse. Insulation should be of a type that will not compress, or it should be located inside a rigid duct enclosure. The only time that common flex ducts are suitable in a below-grade application is when a channel is provided in the slab.
Over time, the outer vapor barrier of flex duct can be compromised. Therefore porous inner core flex duct is not allowed.
Duct system sealing and leakage testing is mandatory in all climate zones. Duct systems in newly constructed single family dwellings, townhouses, and multifamily dwellings are required to comply with the requirements. For single-family dwellings and townhouses where the air-handling unit is installed and ducts are connected directly to the air handler, the total leakage of the duct system needs to be 5 percent or less of the nominal system air handler airflow. For single-family dwellings and townhouses where the air-handling unit is not installed, the total leakage of the duct system shall not exceed 4 percent of the nominal systems air handler airflow.
For multifamily dwellings with the air-handling unit installed and the ducts connected directly to the air handler, the total leakage of the duct system shall not exceed 12 percent of the nominal system air handler airflow or the duct system leakage to outside shall not exceed 6 percent of the nominal system air handler airflow.
The duct system leakage needs to be verified per the applicable procedures outlined in Reference Residential Appendix Section RA3.1.4.3.1 through RA3.1.4.3.4.
Alterations and additions to ducted systems in existing buildings in all climate zones are also required to comply with applicable maximum leakage criteria. Refer to Chapter 9 for more information on duct sealing and leakage testing for existing buildings.
A. Duct Leakage Testing For Multiple Duct Systems With Common Return Ducts
If there are two or more duct systems in a building that are tied together at a common return duct, then each duct system should be tested separately, including the shared portion of the return duct system in each test. Under this scenario, the portions of the second duct system that is not being tested must be completely isolated from the portions of the ducts that are being tested, so the leakage from second duct system does not affect the leakage rate from the side that is being tested.
Figure 4-3 represents the systems that are attached to a shared return boot or remote return plenum. In this case, the point in the return system that needs to be blocked off is readily accessible through the return grille.
The “duct leakage averaging” where both systems are tested together as though it is one large system and divided by the combined tonnage to get the target leakage may not be used as it allows a duct system with more the 5 percent leakage to pass if the leakage of the combined system is 5 percent or less.
Source: California Energy Commission
Air filtration is present in forced air systems to protect the equipment and may provide health benefits to building occupants. In 'addition to filtering particulates from the airstream filters add flow resistance to the forced air system, potentially lowering the efficiency of the heating/cooling equipment. Flow resistance is measured as a pressure drop at a specific airflow.
Except for evaporative coolers, any mechanical forced air heating and/or cooling system with more than 10 feet of duct must meet four sets of criteria:
1. System Design Criteria:
a) All recirculated and outdoor air passing through the heating/cooling device must first pass through the filter.
b) The system design must accommodate the pressure drop through the filter at the designed airflow. To accomplish this, the design airflow and the design pressure drop through the filter must be determined by the designer. The design pressure drop will determine the size and depth of the filter media required for the device (return filter grill or filter rack).
c) If the system design elects compliance using the return duct design alternative specified in Tables 150.0-B and C (see Table 4-10 and Table 4-11) then the designer must assume a design filter pressure drop of 0.05 IWC at the applicable design airflow rate.
d) Replacing the filters, like for like, when they become dirty brings the resistance to airflow back to the design condition. Therefore, the filters must be located to allow access for regular service by the occupants.
e) To maintain the energy efficiency of the system, it is necessary for the occupants to know which filters to select that will provide the designed airflow. Therefore, a clearly legible label, such as shown in Figure 4-6 Figure 4-4, shall be permanently placed in a location visible to a person changing the filter. As shown in Figure 4-4,the label shows the allowable maximum resistance at the airflow rate closest to the design airflow for that filter location. For example, Figure 4-4 is a label for a filter location designed for 400 CFM at 0.03 IWC. On air filter media product labeling, the AHRI Standard 680 test procedure reports pressure drop at airflow values in 400 CFM increments, and the ASHRAE Standard 52.2 test procedure reports pressure drop at five airflow values within the manufacturer's rated range of performance. Therefore values for air filter media pressure drop for airflow rates that fall between the reported cfm increments must be determined by interpolation of the values reported on the manufacturer's air filter product label, or by lookup methods made available by the filter media vendor or manufacturer.
|
Air Filter Performance Requirement |
Maintenance Instructions | |
|
Airflow (CFM) |
Initial Resistance |
USE ONLY REPLACEMENT FILTERS WITH AN INTIAL RESISTANCE LESS THAN 0.032 AT 400 CFM AIRFLOW RATE |
|
400 |
0.03 | |
Source: California Energy Commission
1. Air Filter Media Efficiency Criteria: The filter media shall be MERV 6 or better to protect the equipment and to potentially provide health benefits. Filter media that provide at least 50% percent particle efficiency in the 3.0–10 μm range in AHRI 680 are considered to meet the MERV 6 criterion.
2. Air Filter Media Pressure Drop Criteria: To ensure airflow for efficient heating and cooling equipment operation, the installed filter media must conform to the design pressure drop specification shown in the Filter Location Label described in Item 1e above.
3. Air Filter Media Labeling Criteria: The filter device must be provided with a filter media product that has been labeled by the manufacturer to disclose performance ratings that meet both the Efficiency and Pressure drop criteria described in 2 and 3 above and as shown in the Filter Location Label described in Item 1.e above.
Adequate airflow is critical for cooling equipment efficiency. Further, it is important to maintain adequate airflow without expending excessive fan power. §150.0(m)13 requires system airflow and watt draw to be HERS-verified. See Reference Residential Appendices RA3.3 for the applicable HERS verification procedures.
Except for heating only systems, systems must comply with one of the following two methods:
a) Airflow and Watt Draw Measurement and Determination of Fan Efficacy:
b) When using the airflow (cfm/ton) and fan efficacy (watt/cfm) method the following criteria must be met:
c) Provide airflow through the return grilles that is equal to or greater than 350 CFM per ton of nominal cooling capacity.
d) At the same time, the fan watt draw must be less than or equal to 0.58 watts per CFM.
e) The methods of measuring the watt draw are described in Reference Residential Appendix RA3.3. Three acceptable apparatuses are:
f) A portable watt meter,
g) An analog utility revenue meter, or
h) A digital utility revenue meter.
Note: When required to measure fan watt draw in package air conditioners or heat pumps, it is recommended to use a portable true power clamp-on meter to provide flexibility for isolating the correct fan wires. These meters may need to be high-voltage-capable.
a) There are three acceptable methods to determine compliance with the system airflow requirement. They are described in Reference Residential Appendix RA3.3 and use one of the following:
b) An active or passive flow capture hood to measure the total airflow through the return grill(s, or)
c) Flow grid device(s) at the return grill(s) or other location where all the central fan airflow passes through the flow grid, or
d) Fan flow meter device to perform the plenum pressure matching procedure.
The flow grid and the fan flow meter both require access to static pressure measurements of the airflow exiting the cooling coil, which uses a HSPP or PSPP (Section RA3.3.1.1).
The contractor must install either a hole for the placement of a static pressure probe (HSPP) or provide a permanently installed static pressure probe (PSPP) as shown in Figure 4-5 below and Reference Residential Appendix RA3.3
Source: California Energy Commission
The HSPP or PSPP simplifies cooling coil airflow measurement when using devices/procedures that depend on supply plenum pressure measurements.
1. Return Duct System Design Method – This method allows the designer to specify, and the contractor to install, a system that does not have to be tested for airflow and fan watt draw. This method can be used for return systems with two returns. Each return shall be no longer than 30 feet from the return plenum to the filter grille. When bends are needed, metal elbows are desirable. Each return can have up to 180 degrees of bend, and no more 90 degrees of bend can be flex duct. To use this method, the designer and installer must provide return system sizing that meets the appropriate criteria in Table 4-10 or Table 4-11.
Studies have shown that adequate airflow is critical to the efficient operation of air conditioning systems. §150.0(m)13B establishes mandatory requirements that are intended to ensure adequate cooling airflow through properly sized ducts and efficient fan motors.
There are two options allowed to ensure adequate air flow; option one is to design and install the systems using standard design criteria and then have the systems airflow and fan efficacy (AF/FE) tested and third-party verified in the field. The second option is to use size the return ducts according to Table 4-10 and Table 4-11 (as specified by EXCEPTION 1 to §150.0(m)13B). These tables are very simplified and very conservative (The return ducts are much larger than would normally be used). They should be used only in situations where there is a serious concern that the system will not pass the diagnostic tests for airflow and fan efficacy, such as in alterations where duct modification opportunities are limited. The first option, AF/FE testing, is always preferable, especially in new construction.
The California Green Code and the California Mechanical Code both require that residential duct systems be designed according to ACCA 'Manual D, or equivalent. If reasonable care and judgment is used in designing the duct system (both return and supply ducts) and the system is designed to reasonable parameters for airflow per ton, static pressure across the fan, and friction rate, these systems should have no problem passing the diagnostic tests. Return ducts should not be sized according to Table 4-10 or Table 4-11 purely as a way to avoid the diagnostic testing. While undersized return ducts are very often the cause of poor airflow in many systems, they are only part of the overall system.
The following design guidelines will increase the chances of the system passing the AF/FE testing without sizing the return ducts according to Table 4-10 or Table 4-11:
1. Right-size the HVAC system; if a 3-ton unit is enough to satisfy the cooling load, do not install a 4-ton unit “just to be safe”. Oversizing equipment can cause comfort problems in 'addition to excessive energy use.
2. The HVAC designer must coordinate closely with the architect and structural engineer to make sure that the ducts will fit into the home as designed.
3. Prepare a detailed mechanical plan that can be followed in the field. If deviations must occur in the field, make sure that they are coordinated with the designer and that the design is adjusted as needed.
4. Follow 'Manual D for duct sizing:
5. Make sure that the correct duct type is being used (vinyl flex, sheet metal, rigid fiberglass, or other).
6. Make sure that all equivalent lengths and pressure drops are correctly accounted for (bends, plenum start collars, t-wyes, filters, grilles, registers, and so forth).
7. Select a furnace that will provide at least 400 cfm/ton at the desired static pressure of 125 to 150 Pa (0.5 to 0.6 inches w.c.).
8. Design the duct system to a static pressure across the fan of no more than 150 Pa (0.6 inches water column).
9. Consider upsizing the evaporator coil relative to the condenser to reduce the static pressure drop. This results in better airflow and slightly better capacity and efficiency. Manufacturers commonly provide performance data for such condenser coil combinations.
10. Consider specifying an air handler with a better quality fan motor.
11. Install a large grill area and use proper filter for the system; using a higher MERV filter than needed unnecessarily increases the static pressure.
12. Locate registers and equipment to make duct runs as short as possible.
13. Make all short-radius 90 degree bends out of rigid ducting.
14. Install flex duct properly by: stretching all flex duct tight and cut off excess ducting, ensure the duct is not kinked or compressed, ensure flex duct is properly supported every four feet or less using one inch strapping having less than two inches of sag between supports.
Consider using better quality supply and filter grills. “Bar-type” registers have considerably better airflow performance than standard “stamped-face” registers. Refer to manufacturer’s specifications and select accordingly.
Energy Standards Tables 150.0-B and C (Table 4-10 and Table 4-11) allow for only one or two returns. There may be times where three returns are necessary on a single system. Furthermore, Table 150.0-C does not allow for deviation from the two sizes specified. For example, the table requires two 16” return ducts for a 3.5-ton system, but specific airflow requirements and architectural constraints may dictate something more like a 20” and a 14”. In this situation, the designers would have to rely on standard engineering principles and trust their design to pass the diagnostic tests.
Having adequate room to run properly sized ducts has always been an issue. Historically, duct systems have been sized to fit into the home at the expense of proper airflow. The performance of these systems, in terms of efficiency and capacity, has suffered greatly because of this practice. It is the intent of these Standards to change these practices. The home should be designed to accommodate properly sized ducts. This requires improved coordination among the architect, structural engineer, and mechanical designer earlier in the process. This is not “best practice”; this is simply good design.
Tables 150.0-B and C require use of return grilles that are sized to achieve a reasonable face velocity and static pressure drop. Tables 150.0-B and C also require the return grille devices be labeled in accordance with the requirements in section 150.0(m)12A to disclose the design airflow rate of the grille determined taking into account a maximum allowable clean-filter pressure drop of 12 Pa (0.05 inches water) for the air filter media. The nominal size of the air filter grille or air filter media should be used to calculate the return filter grille gross area for determining compliance with Tables 150.0-B and C. The nominal size of the filter grille is expected to be the same as the nominal size of the air filter media that is used in the grille, and is most often the information used to identify these items for purchases. For example, a nominal 20 inch by 30 inch filter grille will use nominal 20 inch x 30 inch air filter media.
The mechanical contractor for a new home submitted the following mechanical design to the builder. It was designed using typical design specifications (400 cfm/ton at 125 Pa (0.5” w.c.), friction rate = 0.1, etc.). The system is has 4-ton condenser, and the air handler is rated for 1.600 cfm.
Source: California Energy Commission
Because the builder has specified a low-end air handler, he or she is concerned that the system may not pass the mandatory diagnostic testing requirement for airflow and fan efficacy. The builder requests that the system be redesigned with the return ducts sized according to Table 150.0-C. The following layout is the redesigned system (Figure 4-7). The only change is that the system now has two 18” return ducts and two filter grilles sized according to Table 150.0-C, rather than a single 20” return duct and a filter grille sized according to the manufacturer’s specifications for 1,600 cfm. Because one of the return ducts had more than one 90 degree bend, one of the bends is required to be a metal elbow (to be insulated). The two return filters are 20”x30” each and are rated by the manufacturer to show that they have a pressure drop of less than 125 Pa (0.5” w.c.) at 800 cfm each.
Source: California Energy Commission
|
System Nominal Cooling Capacity (Ton) |
Minimum Return Duct Diameter (inch) |
Minimum Total Return Filter Grille Gross Area (Inch2) |
|
1.5 |
16 |
500 |
|
2.0 |
18 |
600 |
|
2.5 |
20 |
800 |
|
Two Returns | |||
|
System Nominal Cooling Capacity (Ton) |
Return Duct
1 Minimum Diameter |
Return Duct
2 Minimum Diameter |
Minimum
Total Return Filter Grille Gross
Area |
|
1.5 |
12 |
10 |
500 |
|
2.0 |
14 |
12 |
600 |
|
2.5 |
14 |
14 |
800 |
|
3.0 |
16 |
14 |
900 |
|
3.5 |
16 |
16 |
1000 |
|
4.0 |
18 |
18 |
1200 |
|
5.0 |
20 |
20 |
1500 |
From Table 150-C of the Energy Standards
The primary purpose of zoning ducted air conditioners, heat pumps, and furnaces is to improve comfort. Increased comfort is attained by having the capacity of the HVAC system (cooling or heating delivered) follow the shift in load as it changes across the house. For example, it is common for two-story homes to be too hot on the second floor in both summer and winter. Zoning has the capability of diverting more of the HVAC capacity to the area with the increased load. Another common example is a home with a significant area of west-facing and east-facing windows. In the summer, the east rooms overheat in the morning and the west rooms overheat in the afternoon.
Providing the most agreeable temperature to all the zones is comfortable, but it carries with it the distinct possibility of increased energy consumption. Since the most common home is single zoned and has only one thermostat placed near the center of the house, temperatures in the rooms distant from that thermostat will vary, sometimes significantly. If zoning is added, the more distant rooms may be conditioned to a more comfortable temperature. This increased conditioning requires more energy. When designed correctly, zoning allows only the zones that need conditioning to be conditioned, thus potentially saving energy.
It is common for zonally controlled central forced air cooling systems to produce lower airflow through the returns thus lowering the sensible efficiency of the single-stage heating or cooling equipment. There are two primary methods by which the common multizoned dampered system lowers airflow: additional restriction of zoning dampers and recirculation through the air conditioner from a bypass duct. To avoid this efficiency problem, zonally controlled central forced air cooling systems using a single speed air conditioner must simultaneously meet the following criteria:
1. In every zonal control mode, the system shall provide airflow through the return grilles that is equal to or greater than 350 CFM per ton of nominal cooling capacity.
2. In every zonal control mode, the fan watt draw must be less than or equal to 0.58 watts per CFM.
The airflow and fan watt draw must be HERS verified. See Reference Residential Appendix RA3.3 for the HERS verification procedures.
Zonally controlled central forced air cooling systems with multispeed or variable speed compressors need to be verified only to meet the above 350 CFM per nominal ton and 0.58 watts per CFM criteria with the compressor on high speed and all zones calling for cooling.
Recent studies have shown that zoned systems (multiple zones served by a single air handler with motorized zone dampers), with or without bypass dampers, usually do not meet the AF/FE requirements when fewer than all zones are calling. The energy penalty that results from this is greater than the benefit of having zonal control; therefore zonal control is no longer simply assumed to be a “better than minimum” condition, and there are special compliance requirements for them. Note that Zonal control accomplished by using multiple single-zone systems is not subject to these requirements.
There are two choices for modeling zoned systems. One is for air conditioning condensers that have single-speed compressors, and the other is for condensers that have “multispeed” compressors. Two-speed and variable-speed compressors are considered multi-peed. Multispeed compressors allow the system capacity to vary to more closely match reduced cooling loads when fewer than all zones are calling for cooling. Therefore, multispeed compressor systems are given special consideration when used in zoned systems and are not required to verify performance in all zonal control modes. Instead, the airflow and fan efficacy testing is required to be performed only at the highest speed with all zones calling. Zoned systems with single-speed compressors must be tested and pass in all operating modes.
Because zoned systems, with or without bypass dampers, are less likely to meet the AF/FE requirements when fewer than all zones are calling, a way is provided in the performance compliance option to take this penalty and still allow use of zone dampers. Other energy features must offset the penalty. In the performance compliance software, if the system is modeled as a zoned system with a single-speed compressor, the default airflow drops to 150 CFM/ton. The standard house is assumed to have an airflow of 350 CFM/ton, so there is definitely a penalty unless the designer specifies a value of 350 or higher. Entering a value between 150 and 350 can lessen the penalty.
It is extremely important that the energy consultant model airflow and fan efficacy values are reasonable and obtainable; otherwise they will fail in the field and will need to be remodeled at actual values. Energy consultants should coordinate with the HVAC designer before registering the certificate of compliance.
Note: Bypass dampers may be installed only if the certificate of compliance specifically states that the system was modeled as having a bypass damper.
Example:
1. A home is to be built with a zoned system (two zones) with a single speed compressor and bypass ducts. From experience, the HVAC contractor knows that it will not be possible to meet the 350 CFM/ton requirement, but 275 CFM/ton is likely.
2. The energy consultant models the system in the proposed house with 275 CFM/ton (better than default) and 0.58 W/CFM (default). Because the standard house assumes 350 CFM/ton there is an energy penalty that must be made up with other better-than-standard features, but it is not nearly as bad as it would be at the default of 150 CFM/ton.
3. Because 275 CFM/ton is better than the default of 150, it must be tested in all individual control modes. Because the modeled fan efficacy is the default value, it needs to be tested only with all zones calling. If a better than default value was modeled for fan efficacy, it would need to be tested in all zonal control modes.
4. The home is built and the system is verified by a rater and passes at 287 CFM/ton with one zone calling, 298 CFM/ton with the other zone calling, and 372 CFM/ton with both zones calling. It must still meet the mandatory requirements of 350 cfm/ton with all zones calling.
5. If this same home was to be built with a multispeed compressor, it would have to be tested only with both zones calling whether it has a bypass damper, but the target airflow would be no less than 350 CFM/ton. Compliance credit can be achieved by modeling airflows greater than 350 CFM/ton and/or fan efficacies less than 0.58 watts/CFM.
|
Single-Zone Ducted Cooling Systems (Single Zone Off of a Single Air Handler) | |||
|
Compressor Type |
Mandatory Requirements for Airflow and Fan Efficacy |
Performance Compliance Option | |
|
Proposed system Defaults |
Modeled Improved Airflow and/or | ||
|
Single Speed Two Speed or (Testing Performed |
Airflow ≥ 350 CFM/ton, Fan Efficacy ≤..58 W/CFM (Airflow and Fan Efficacy |
350 CFM/ton and 0.58 W/CFM |
Airflow ≥350 CFM/ton and/or Fan Efficacy ≤0.58 W/CFM |
Source: California Energy Commission
|
Zoned Ducted Cooling Systems (Multiple Zones Off a Single Air Handler) | |||
|
Compressor Type |
Mandatory Requirements for Airflow and Fan Efficacy 1 |
Performance Compliance 2 | |
|
Proposed System Defaults 3 |
Modeled Improved Airflow and/or Fan Efficacy | ||
|
Single Speed |
Airflow ≥ 350 CFM/ton and Fan Efficacy ≤ 0.58 W/ CFM
(For Prescriptive Compliance |
150 CFM/ton and 0.58 W/CFM |
Airflow ≥ 150 CFM/ton and/or Fan Efficacy ≤ 0.58 W/CFM (Verification of better-than default values required in
all individual control modes. |
|
Two Speed or Variable Speed |
Airflow ≥ 350 CFM/ton and Fan Efficacy ≤ 0.58 W/ CFM (Verification Required Only on Highest Capacity and with All Zones Calling) |
350 CFM/ton and 0.58 W/CFM |
Airflow ≥ 350 CFM/ton and/or Fan Efficacy ≤ 0.58 W/CFM (Verification of modeled |
|
1 For the Prescriptive Compliance Method, all Mandatory Requirements for airflow and fan efficacy must be met, and use of a bypass duct is not allowed. 2 For the Performance Compliance Method, all Mandatory Requirements for airflow and fan efficacy must be met, and use of a bypass duct may be specified in the compliance software input for the zoned system type. The Standard System Default for all cases is 350 CFM/ton and 0.58 W/CFM. | |||
See Section 4.6 of this chapter for details.
The 2016 Energy Standards are designed to offer flexibility to the builders and designers of residential new construction in terms of achieving the intended energy efficiency targets. As such, several options are offered for achieving one of two design objectives related to improving energy performance of homes built with ventilated attics in Climate Zones 4, 8-16 as shown in Figure 4-8.
Source: California Energy Commission
High-performance attic (HPA) implements measures that minimize temperature difference between the attic space and the conditioned air being transported through ductwork in the attic. The package consists of insulation either below the roof deck or insulation above the roof deck in addition to insulation at the ceiling, R-8 ducts, and 5 percent total duct leakage of the nominal air handler airflow. These requirements and approaches to meet the requirements are explained in Section 3.6.2 of this manual.
Ducts in conditioned space (DCS) is achieved when the ducts and air handler(s) are within the thermal envelope and air barrier of the building. This DCS option requires field verification in order to meet the prescriptive requirement. The following sections describe the duct related requirements for DCS.
Standard residential construction practice in California is to place ducts and associated air handling equipment in the attic. When meeting the prescriptive requirements for the Energy Standards, there are two options for where this equipment can be located:
1. If meeting the prescriptive requirements of the high-performance attic (HPA) as explained above, the duct system and air handlers of HVAC systems are allowed to be located in the attic.
2. If meeting the prescriptive requirements of the ducts in conditioned space (DCS) as explained above, the duct system and air handlers of HVAC systems must be located in conditioned space, which includes a joist cavity between conditioned floors, or in sealed cavity below attic insulation.
If the DCS requirements are to be met, additional requirements apply:
1. Air handlers containing a combustion component should be direct-vent (sealed combustion chambers), and shall not use air from conditioned space as combustion air. Other types of combustion heating systems are possible given the system installer adheres to the combustion air requirements found in Chapter 7 of the California Mechanical Code.
2. Duct location needs to be verified through a visual inspection per Reference Residential Appendix RA 3.1.4.1.3.
3. Duct leakage to outside needs to be confirmed by field verification and diagnostic testing in accordance with Reference Residential Appendix RA3.1.4.3.8.
4. Ducts are insulated to a level required in Table 150.1-A.
|
§150.1(c)1
|
|
¨ Vented attic ¨ R30 or R38 ceiling insulation (climate zone specific) ¨ R6 or R8 ducts (climate zone specific) ¨ Radiant Barrier ¨ Verified ducts in conditioned space |
Source: California Energy Commission
The checklist in Figure 4-9 lists all the prescriptive DCS requirements that must be met to meet prescriptive requirements using DCS strategy. It is not enough to only locate ducts in conditioned space, but insulation must also meet prescriptive values. If a building is not able to meet all of the requirements in this checklist, it must use the performance approach or Option A or B from the §150.1(c).1. Refer to Section 3.6 of the Residential Compliance Manual for more information on these options.
There are several methods of achieving the goal of DCS. The basic information of the strategies, their benefits, challenges, and potential solutions to those challenges are outlined below.
A. Vented Attic, Dropped Ceiling
This strategy places ducts within the thermal envelope without affecting the standard construction of the attic space. This strategy works well in linear plans where rooms branch out from a central hallway with the dropped ceiling.
Source: www.ductsinside.org/
Source: BIRA Energy
Benefits of selecting this strategy include the following:
1. Attic ventilation remains the same as standard practice.
2. Does not affect attic assembly or insulation; no changes to truss design.
3. Works with simple and linear designs with rooms off main hallway but can work with more complex plans.
4. Can be integrated into architectural accents.
There are challenges associated with this strategy as outlined below, but they can be overcome with good design and installation practices.
1. Need to address air handler location – there may not be sufficient space (height, width) in the dropped ceiling to accommodate the air handler. In this case, the air handler would need to be installed in a separate closet within the thermal boundary of the home.
2. Coordination needed between trades – moving the ducts and air handlers and the need to isolate and seal the dropped ceiling would necessitate coordination between different trades (HVAC installer, dry-wall, framing, and electrical contractors) to ensure thermal integrity of the dropped ceiling.
B. Vented Attic, Conditioned Plenum Space
A conditioned plenum is created when a space within the attic is sealed off and insulated from the rest of the attic. To use this design option, a builder can specify two types of modified trusses: either scissor trusses or a truss configuration that creates a plenum box. Another way to create a conditioned plenum does not involve modified trusses, but rather to create the space by framing, sealing and insulating the plenum space above the ceiling plane.
Source: www.ductsinside.org
Similar to a dropped ceiling, this design is easier with a linear plan that allows for the conditioned space in the attic to cover a central “spine” throughout the floor plan that can reach all spaces in need of supply registers. This design option allows for ducts in the attic space and does not affect aesthetics of the home.
Benefits for selecting the strategy:
1. Vented attic space, same as standard construction
2. Aesthetically less disruptive than dropped ceiling
3. Works with simple and linear designs with rooms off main hallway
There are challenges associated with this strategy as outlined below, but they can be overcome with good design and installation practices.
1. Need to seal the plenum from attic – as with most of the DCS strategies, it is important that care and attention is provided to air sealing the plenum space from the attic space.
2. May require modified trusses in which case manufacturers need to be provided with specifications that can be met.
C. Vented Attic, Open Web Floor Truss
Source: www.ductsinside.org
This option can work for two-story construction and makes use of the space between floors to house ducts. Open-web floor trusses are not a common component in residential construction but are available from several floor joist manufacturers. The depth of floor joists may need to be increased to create a large enough space for supply ducts. The increased joist depth may affect interior details and wall heights. Because of the size constraints from using the floor truss, there is a need to preserve construction quality and prevent undesirable construction practices such as forcing 14” ducts into a 12” joist spaces. Another option is to use alternatives to wire helix plastic flexible ducts that take up less space. Coordination between the architect and the HVAC engineer and/or contractor is needed to ensure that ducts are correctly sized and truss depths are appropriately selected. Using the area between floors to house ducts prescribes that supply registers be at the floor or lower wall in the second story and the ceiling or upper wall in the first story.
D. Mechanical Closet (and Placement of Sealed Combustion Furnace)
Source: IBACOS 2013
As part of the requirement for moving the duct system and air handler into a conditioned space, construction of a mechanical closet is necessary with some DCS strategies. For example, if ducts are placed in dropped ceiling space but there is not enough room to accommodate the air handler in that space, the mechanical closet could be placed inside the thermal boundary of the building. A conditioned plenum could provide enough space for ducts and equipment; therefore, a mechanical closet may not be needed.
One potential location for a mechanical closet is within the garage or other spaces normally not conditioned. In such instances, the air handler must be located within a specially built closet that is insulated to the same level as the exterior of the house so that the closet is not a part of the unconditioned space. Combustion air for the air handler must be taken directly from the outside through a direct vent to the outside.
All ducts shall be insulated to a minimum installed level as specified by Table 150.1-A, which requires either R-6 or R-8 depending on the climate zone and whether Option A/B or Option C is chosen for Roof/Ceiling Insulation. Since R-6 is the mandatory minimum for ducts in unconditioned space and R-4.2 for ducts in conditioned space, the prescriptive duct insulation requirement can be opted out by using the performance approach and trading off the energy penalty against some other features.
There is a prescriptive requirement for ducted systems that have cooling and a CFI ventilation system to have the fan efficacy verified. This can be opted out of using the performance approach.
Source: California Energy Commission
The Energy Standards provide credit for several compliance options related to duct design and construction.
A performance compliance credit is available for demonstrating the installation of a high efficiency fan and duct system with better performance than the mandatory requirement of 350 cfm/ton and 0.58 watts/cfm. This credit can be achieved by selecting a unit with a high efficiency air handler fan and/or careful attention to efficient duct design. The performance compliance method allows the user’s proposed fan power to be entered into the program, and credit will be earned if it is lower than the default of 0.58 watts per CFM of system airflow. To obtain this credit, the system airflow must meet the prescriptive requirements of at least 350 CFM/ton of nominal cooling capacity. After installation, the contractor must test the actual fan power of each system using the procedure in Reference Residential Appendix RA3.3, and show that it is equal or less than what was proposed in the compliance software analysis.
The watt draw and airflow must also be verified by a HERS rater.
There are three ways to achieve credit for favorable duct location when using the performance compliance method:
1. Credit is available if no more than 12 LF (linear feet) of duct are outside the conditioned space and the user chooses the high-performance attic (HPA) as explained in Section 3.6.2. This total must include the air handler and plenum lengths. This credit results in a reduction of duct surface area in the computer compliance programs. This option requires certification by the installer and field verification by a HERS Rater.
2. The second alternative applies when 100 percent of the ducts are located in conditioned space and the user chooses high-performance attic (HPA) as explained in Section 3.6.2. This credit results in eliminating the conduction losses associated with both the return and supply ducts; however, leakage rates still apply. This option requires field verification of the duct system by means of a visual inspection by a HERS Rater.
3. Credit for a high-efficiency duct design is available through the diagnostic duct location, surface area, and R-value compliance option, which are described below. This option requires field verification of the duct design layout drawing(s) by a HERS Rater. Verified duct design, when required, will be included in the HERS Required Verification list on the certificate of compliance (CF-1R). This approach provides energy savings credits for having shorter duct runs, fewer ducts, ducts in beneficial locations of ductwork, and other benefits of a well-designed duct system. This credit is available regardless of whether a high-performance attic (HPA) or ducts in conditioned space (DCS) option is chosen, as explained in Section 3.6.2.
There is no compliance credit provided for choosing a heating system such as a wall furnace, floor heater, or room heater even though those systems typically have no ducts. For these cases, the standard design in the compliance calculation uses the same type of system and has no ducts. However, other systems, such as hydronic heating systems with a central heater or boiler and multiple terminal units, are considered central HVAC systems that are compared to a ducted system in the standard design. If the hydronic system has no ducts, there may be a significant energy credit through the performance method.
Performance credit is also available if all of the ducts are insulated to a level higher than required by the prescriptive package. If ducts with multiple R-values are installed, the lowest duct R-value must be used for the entire duct system. However, the air handler, plenum, connectors, and boots can be insulated to the mandatory minimum R-value.
As an alternative when there is a mix of duct insulation R-values, credit is available through the method described in the next section.
This compliance option allows the designer to take credit for a high efficiency duct design that incorporates duct system features that may not meet the criteria for the duct location and/or insulation compliance options described above. This method requires that the designer must enter the design characteristics of all ducts that are not located within conditioned space. The information required for the input to the compliance software includes the length, diameter, insulation R-value, and location of all ducts. This method will result in a credit if the proposed duct system is better than the standard design.
To claim this credit, the duct system design must be documented on plans that are submitted to the enforcement agency and posted at the construction site for use by the installers, the enforcement agency field inspector, and the HERS Rater. The duct system must be installed in accordance with the approved duct system plans, and the duct system installation must be certified by the installer on the CF2R form and verified by a HERS Rater on the CF3R form. Details of this compliance option are described in the Residential ACM Reference Manual, and verification procedures are described in RA3.1 of the Reference Residential Appendix.
Source: California Energy Commission
This compliance option also allows credit for the special case of ducts that are buried by blown attic insulation. For ducts that lie on the ceiling (or within 3.5 inch of the ceiling), the effective R-value is calculated based on the duct size and the depth of ceiling insulation as shown in Table R3-38 in the Residential ACM 'Manual. This case is referred to as “Buried Ducts on the Ceiling”. For the case of deeply buried ducts, which are ducts that are enclosed in a lowered portion of the ceiling and completely covered by attic insulation, then the effective R-value allowance in the compliance calculations is R-25 when the attic insulation is fiberglass and R-31 for cellulose attic insulation. To take credit for buried ducts, the system must meet the verified duct design criteria described above, be diagnostically tested for duct sealing compliance by a HERS Rater according to Reference Residential Appendix RA3.1, and meet the requirements for high insulation installation quality described in Reference Residential Appendix RA3.5. Verified minimum airflow (350 cfm/ton or higher if higher is specified on the CF1R) is required when a measure is selected for compliance that has a verified duct design as a prerequisite.
Installation of a radiant barrier in the attic increases the duct efficiency by lowering attic summer temperatures. Compliance credit for radiant barriers is available in cases there prescriptive standard does not require radiant barriers and requires listing of the radiant barrier in the special features and modeling assumptions in order to aid the local enforcement agency’s inspections. Compliance credit for a radiant barrier does not require HERS Rater verification.
The mandatory duct construction measures referenced in Section 4.4.1 above state that duct installations must comply with the California Mechanical Code Sections 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, and the applicable requirements of the Energy Standards. Some highlights of these requirements are 'listed in this section, along with some guidance for recommended quality construction practice.
All tapes and clamps must meet the requirements of §150.0(m).
Cloth-backed rubber-adhesive tapes must be used only in combination with mastic and draw bands, or have on its backing the phrase "CEC approved," a drawing of a fitting to plenum joint in a red circle with a slash through it (the international symbol of prohibition), and a statement that it cannot be used to seal fittings to plenums and junction box joints.
For residential round metal ducts, installers must overlap the joint by at least 1½ inch and use three sheet metal screws equally spaced around the joint (See Figure 4-17).
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
For round nonmetallic flex ducts, installers must insert the core over the metal collar or fitting by at least 1 in. This connection may be completed with either mesh, mastic and a clamp, or two wraps of tape and a clamp.
For a mesh and mastic connection, the installer must first tighten the clamp over the overlapping section of the core, apply a coat of mastic covering both the metal collar and the core by at least 1 in., and then firmly press the fiber mesh into the mastic and cover with a second coat of mastic over the fiber mesh (See Figure 4-18).
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
For the tape connection first apply at least two wraps of approved tape covering both the core and the metal collar by at least 1 inch, then tighten the clamp over the overlapping section of the core (see Figure 4-19).
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
Source: California Energy Commission
Seal all joints with either mastic, tape, aerosol sealant, or other duct-closure system that meets the applicable requirements of UL 181, UL 181A, UL 181B, or UL 723. Duct systems shall not use cloth-backed, rubber-adhesive duct tape regardless of UL designation, unless it is installed in combination with mastic and clamps. The Energy Commission has approved three cloth-backed duct tapes with special butyl synthetic adhesives rather than rubber adhesive to seal flex duct to fittings. These tapes are:
1. Polyken 558CA, Nashua 558CA, manufactured by Berry Plastics Tapes and Coatings Division.
2. Shurtape PC 858CA, manufactured by Shurtape Technologies, Inc.
These tapes passed Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory tests comparable to those that cloth-backed rubber-adhesive
duct tapes failed (The LBNL test procedure has been adopted by the American
Society of Testing and Materials as ASTM
E2342). These tapes are allowed to
be used to seal flex duct to fittings without being in combination with mastic.
These tapes cannot be used to seal other duct system joints, such as the
attachment of fittings to plenums and junction boxes. These tapes have on the
backing a drawing of a fitting to plenum joint in a red circle with a slash
through it (the international symbol of prohibition) to illustrate where they
are not allowed to be used, installation instructions in the packing boxes that
explain how to install them on duct core to fittings and a statement that the
tapes cannot be used to seal fitting to plenum and junction box joints.
Mastic and mesh should be used where round or oval ducts join flat or round plenums (see Figure 4-20).
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
All ducts must be adequately supported.
Both rigid duct and flex duct may be supported on rigid building materials between ceiling joists or on ceiling joists.
For rigid round metal ducts that are suspended from above, hangers must occur 12 ft apart or less (see Figure 4-21).
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
For rectangular metal ducts that are suspended from above, hangers must occur at a minimum of 4 ft to 10 ft depending on the size of the ducts (See Table 6-2-A in Appendix A of the California Mechanical Code). And refer to Figure 4-22.
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
For flex ducts that are suspended from above, hangers must occur at 4 ft apart or less and all fittings and accessories must be supported separately by hangers (See Figure 4-23).
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
For vertical runs of flex duct, support must occur at 6 ft intervals or less (See Figure 4-24)
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
The routing and length of all duct systems can have significant effects on system performance due to possible increased airflow resistance. The Energy Commission recommends using the minimum length of duct to make connections and the minimum possible number of turns.
For flexible ducts, the Energy Commission recommends fully extending the duct by pulling the duct tightly cutting off any excess duct and avoiding bending ducts across sharp corners or compressing them to fit between framing members (See Figure 4-25). Also avoid incidental contact with metal fixtures, pipes, or conduits or installation of the duct near hot equipment such as furnaces, boilers, or steam pipes that are above the recommended flexible duct use temperature.
Source: Richard Heath & Associates/Pacific Gas & Electric
All joints between two sections of duct must be mechanically fastened and substantially airtight. For a flex duct, this must consist of a metal sleeve no less than 4 inches between the two sections of flex duct.
All joints must be properly insulated. For flex ducts this must consist of pulling the insulation and jacket back over the joint and using a clamp or two wraps of tape.Aerosol sealant injection systems are an alternative that typically combines duct testing and duct sealing in one process.
Figure 4-26 shows the computer-controlled injection fan temporarily connected to the supply duct. The plenum is blocked off by sheet metal to prevent sealant from entering the furnace. Supply air registers are also blocked temporarily to keep the sealant out of the house. Ducts must still be mechanically fastened even if an aerosol sealant system is used.
